The Role of Achievement Motivation on the Interlanguage Fossilization of Middle-Aged English-as-a-Second-Language Learners

Zoran Vujisic
University of Turabo, Puerto Rico

Second language acquisition (SLA) is seldom entirely successful with adult learners. It has been suggested that all second language (L2) learners, in the process of mastering a target language (TL), develop a linguistic system that is self-contained and different from both the learner’s native language and the TL. This system is referred to as ‘interlanguage’ (IL). In the process of SLA, IL evolves into an ever-closer approximation of the TL, and ideally, a learner’s IL should continue to advance until it becomes equivalent to the TL. However, it has been observed that somewhere in the L2 learning process, IL may reach one or more plateaus during which the development of the IL is delayed or arrested. A permanent cessation of progress toward the TL is referred to as ‘fossilization’. Researchers in SLA agree that motivation is one of the key factors influencing language-learning success and studies suggest that some language learning motivation may be related to the need for achievement. The purpose of this research was to establish if adult English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) learners are aware of fossilization and, to examine if motivation, and more specifically achievement motivation (AM), is a factor in IL fossilization.

The participants in this study consisted of 15 ESL learners in Puerto Rico who had at least eight years of formal ESL training / classroom exposure. The instrument used to gather information included a questionnaire to obtain demographical and qualifying data, an ‘English Language Proficiency Evaluation’ (ELPE) to determine levels of IL fossilization, a ‘Measure of Achievement Motivation’ (MAM) to ascertain achievement motive, and individual, group, and follow-up interviews in order to ascertain perception(s) regarding the role of motivation on fossilization and perceptions regarding the barriers to achieving TL competency. The research demonstrated that there is a moderate to strong positive relationship between IL fossilization and achievement motivation, i.e., high achievement motive is correlated to TL competency and descending levels of achievement motive are correlated to ascending levels of IL fossilization.

During the study’s follow-up interviews, the 14 participants with IL fossilization were individually provided negative cognitive feedback related to the fossilized items of their speech. These participants were re-tested 6 months later to determine if the corrective feedback provided in those interviews resulted in participants taking any action towards (1) diminishing or overcoming IL fossilization and (2) achieving TL competency. The findings have significant implications for both ESL learning and instruction, and suggest that not all IL fossilization is permanent.

ISBN 9783895861932. LINCOM Studies in Language Acquisition 25. 187pp. 2009.

Second Language Acquisition of the Spanish Verb <em>ESTAR</em> with Adjectives

An Exploration of Contexts of Comparison and Immediate Experience

Daniel S. Woolsey
Indiana University

Unlike English, Spanish uses two verbs to express ‘to be’: ser and estar. Though these verbs are taught early on in instruction, second language learners struggle to acquire the differences between the two verbs, particularly when they are used with adjectives. This struggle is due in part to the fact that not only can the majority of adjectives be used with both ser and estar, but also that specific meanings in the context are highlighted by the use of one verb or the other. For example, estar may be used to highlight a comparison of the referent with itself at another point in time. Thus, el chico está alto ‘the boy is tall’ draws attention to the boy’s present height in comparison with his previous height. Another example is the use of estar to express a reaction to an immediate experience with the referent. Therefore, el chico está alto may also highlight a visual and immediate encounter with the boy.

The purpose of the current study is to investigate the second language acquisition of estar in the two specific pragmatic contexts mentioned above: (1) comparisons of the referent to itself, and (2) visual and immediate experiences with the referent. In order to examine these contexts effectively in learner production data, research instruments were carefully designed to create clear pragmatic contexts and provide ways to confirm speaker intent within ‘copula + adjective’ contexts.

Data for the present study were collected from 111 university Spanish students at four different levels of proficiency. Participants completed a picture description task and a contextualized preference task. Chi-square tests and regression analyses were run for each level to examine the impact ‘comparison’ and ‘immediate experience’ had on the use of estar. Results show that ‘comparison’ is not a predictor of estar at any level of proficiency, while ‘immediate experience’ becomes a predictor at higher levels.

ISBN 9783895865275. LINCOM Studies in Language Acquisition 26. 442pp. 2009.

Learner Knowledge of Target Phonotactics

Judgements of French Word Transformations

Shannon D. Halicki
Indiana University

This study seeks to determine the extent to which inter-language phonology is channeled by Universal Grammar constraints. It is well attested that second language phonology is rarely native-like. The majority of previous work in L2 phonology has attempted to explain this difference. By contrast, I investigate the degree to which adult L2 learners do acquire the phonotactic constraints operative at abstract levels in the phonology of the target language. The empirical research entails a study testing English native L2 learners of French in their knowledge of three structural features: 1) maximum consonant cluster limits in French; 2) sonorancy assimilation at morpheme boundaries; 3) similarity avoidance at morpheme boundaries.

The experiment investigates whether adult learners of French and native French speakers exhibit similar well-formedness judgments of novel French word-like items. In both cases, native-like adult L2 judgments should implicate access to UG for three reasons. First, a parametric difference between French and English regarding consonant clusters allowed in syllable clusters, meaning that L1 transfer cannot be a source of knowledge about target language parameters. Second, rules concerning cluster limits and derived environment constraints are not taught in the French classroom, which indicates a learning paradox, if not a classic case of poverty of the stimulus. Third, the evidence in the target language input is degenerate and misleading, meaning that superficially, it appears that French grammar allows the same super-heavy syllable structures that occur in English. The data show that beginning learners did not exhibit significant preferences for the experimental items. However, the two other learner groups recognized both well-formedness and phonotactic violations in French. They appear to possess knowledge of French phonotactics that parallels native speaker knowledge with responses patterning like those of the native speaker control group for the criteria studied. It is concluded that adult L2 knowledge reflects a high sensitivity to L2 phonological grammar. The results are found to be incompatible with statistically-based phonological frameworks, as well as theories of acquisition that make predictions based on markedness implications. A full transfer/full access account of acquisition is offered to account for the learner preferences.

ISBN 9783895867408. LINCOM Studies in Language Acquisition 27. 234pp. 2010.

Les constructions prépositionelles chez les apprenants de français langue seconde au Gabon : étude didactique

Cadre théorique et Analyses

Jean-Aimé Pambou
Université Aix-Marseille 1

Les apprenants du Gabon utilisent de manière singulière les prépositions françaises. Là où la préposition doit apparaître, les apprenants ne la produisent pas ; là où elle n’est pas attendue, elle apparaît ; là où un morphème prépositionnel est attendu, un autre est rendu et là où les prépositions doivent se construire avec des constituants nominaux, des structures sujet + prédicat sont réalisées. Nous avons choisi d’étudier ces constructions, sans parti pris de type normatif, avant de formuler des propositions concrètes dans le cadre de l’enseignement des prépositions en classe de français langue seconde au Gabon.

Loin d’être de simples erreurs, nous avons considéré ces constructions prépositionnelles comme un sociolecte que nous avons appelé « lecte des apprenants ». L’enquête menée nous a permis de recueillir les productions linguistiques des apprenants, puis de décrire et d’expliquer l’usage des prépositions relevées. Pour cela, nous nous sommes rendu dans cinq des neuf provinces du Gabon : l’Estuaire, le Haut-Ogooué, le Moyen-Ogooué, la Nyanga et le Woleu-Ntem.

Quatre parties ont ponctué notre étude : le cadre socio-didactique, la présentation de l’enquête et du corpus, l’analyse du corpus, les propositions et le bilan du travail.

ISBN 9783895862557. LINCOM Studies in Language Acquisition 28. 640pp. 2010.

Lexical semantics of children’s Mandarin Chinese during the first four years

Adrian Tien
National University of Singapore

If children’s early words or word-like “phrasemes” have any meanings at all, then it should be possible to study and analyse their meanings. But how can early words and meanings be rigorously studied and analysed? In examining naturalistic production data from forty-seven subjects acquiring Mandarin during the first four years, this innovative study takes a radical, semantic approach to words and their meanings in child Mandarin i.e. the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) (e.g. Goddard and Wierzbicka 2002).

Amongst our findings, lexical exponents of sixty-one or so semantic “primes” posited in NSM are present in child Mandarin before the end of the fourth year. Many of these are among the earliest and the most frequent words that children produce. In addition, combinatorial properties of these lexical exponents also support hypotheses advanced about universal syntax within the NSM framework, despite challenges posed by a certain few exponents.

Early vocabulary comprises a great many semantically complex i.e. “non-prime”, words. Before an NSM prime acquires a lexical exponent, it may first be conceptually present as core semantic elements in the meanings of common non-prime words. This phenomenon is termed “latency” (following Tien 1999): a semantic prime is considered “latent” when it is first represented conceptually and expounded lexically only later in development.

On the whole, in adopting a representational system which is the NSM and which is commensurable with the adult system, this study has demonstrated that there is, in fact, developmental continuity between “the young child’s semantic system” and “the adult’s system” (Goddard 2001: 219).

Adrian Tien is an Assistant Professor at the National University of Singapore. His research and teaching areas have included semantics, language acquisition, intercultural and intracultural communication; relationship between language, music and culture; and, English-Chinese and Chinese-English translation studies.

ISBN 9783862880256. LINCOM Studies in Language Acquisition 29. 525pp. 2010.

L’apprendimento di costruzioni complesse in italiano L2

Eleonora Luzi
Università degli Studi "Roma Tre"

Fino ad ora, gran parte della ricerca sull’acquisizione della sintassi in L2 sull’argomento si è occupata della formulazione di sequenze di acquisizione che descrivono le varie tappe nell’apprendimento della sintassi, isolando i livelli di analisi e prescindendo dalle sovrapposizioni funzionali delle strutture analizzate. La nostra analisi, avvalendosi del Costruzionismo e di dati autentici, propone di concepire, e quindi rappresentare, l’apprendimento della sintassi come una rete di costruzioni, in cui competenza linguistica, complessità sintattica e prossimità funzionali possano essere globalmente prese in considerazione, sfruttando la disposizione radiale per descrivere i diversi percorsi di apprendimento delle costruzioni complesse.

Tale proposta, supportata da un’analisi di un corpus parlato di italiano L2 della durata di più di 15 ore, porta da un lato a confermare l’ordine di acquisizione proposto dalla letteratura, e dall’altro a riconoscere due processi di acquisizione fondamentali: da una parte l’integrazione di due proposizioni coordinate per la costruzione avverbiale e relativa non restrittiva, e dall’altra l’espansione di una proposizione per la costruzione completiva e relativa restrittiva.

Il presente lavoro si articola in due parti: Parte 1: apparato teorico, dedicata al rapporto tra coordinazione e subordinazione e all’apprendimento di costruzioni complesse, e Parte 2: i dati, dedicata all’impianto dell’analisi e ai risultati. Nelle conclusioni finali si propone una rete di costruzioni nel tentativo di rappresentare nel modo più esauriente possibile i fenomeni in campo nei processi di acquisizione delle costruzioni complesse.

ISBN 9783862881673. LINCOM Studies in Language Acquisition 30. 338pp. 2011.

Akwẽ-Xerente (Jê), Português e Inglês

Ensino do Inglês Intercultural em contexto multilíngue para Professores Indígenas Brasileiros

Rodrigo Guimarães Prudente Marquez Cotrim
Universidade de Brasília

Neste trabalho apresento o processo de ensino-aprendizagem do Inglês como terceira língua (L3) para professores indígenas brasileiros, o qual ocorre num contexto multilíngue, em um curso de formação superior de professores indígenas, composto majoritariamente por falantes bilíngues - como é o caso dos Akwẽ-Xerente, falantes bilíngues Xerente-Português. Para este processo, dentro do qual várias línguas coexistem no mesmo espaço, foi necessário o desenvolvimento de uma base de conhecimento trilíngue. Ela inclui o estudo dos sons (Fonologia) e de processos de formação de palavras (Morfologia) do Akwẽ-Xerente, do Português e do Inglês. Através desta base de conhecimento pretende-se refletir sobre a situação sociolinguística e sobre a troca de conhecimentos linguísticos dos sujeitos envolvidos. No âmbito teórico, é chamada a atenção aos estudos sobre educação bilíngue intercultural, concernente à educação indígena, e sobre o ensino-aprendizagem de segundas/terceiras línguas. Apresento, assim, o Intercultural Inglês, seus princípios pedagógicos, eixos e metodologia, a qual sublinha a importância de contextualizar o contexto ao texto, às palavras aos sons (como proposto nas obras de Paulo Freire). Ao final, exponho o material didático e os "temas contextuais" utilizados do Inglês Intercultural I ao Inglês Intercultural VII, bem como apresento o material trilíngue produzido pelos professores indígenas.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE: LÍNGUA AKWẽ-XERENTE (JÊ); LÍNGUA INGLESA; LÍNGUA PORTUGUESA; MULTILINGUISMO; EDUCAÇÃO BILÍNGUE INTERCULTURAL.

Akwẽ-Xerente (Jê), Português e Inglês:
Ensino do Inglês Intercultural em contexto multilíngue para Pro-fessores Indígenas Brasileiros

Rodrigo Guimarães Prudente Marquez Cotrim
Universidade de Brasília This work shows a process of teaching-and-learning of English as a third language (L3) for Brazilian native teachers, which occurs in a multilingual context at a higher education course for indigenous teachers in Brazil, mostly composed of bilinguals - as the Akwẽ-Xerente–Portuguese speakers. For this process, of within which several languages coexist in the same space, it was necessary the development of a trilingual knowledge base. It includes the study of sounds (Phonology) and processes of word formation (Morphology) of Akwẽ-Xerente (Jê), Portuguese and English that might help reflecting upon the sociolinguistic situation and on the exchanging of linguistic knowledge of the subjects involved. In the theoretical framework, it is drawn attention to studies on intercultural bilingual education, with regard to indigenous education, and on teaching-learning of second/third languages. Then, it is presented the Inglês Intercultural, its pedagogical principles, its axis, and its methodology - which stresses the importance of contextualizing the context to the text, to the words, and to the sounds (as proposed in Paulo Freire’s works). By the end, it is shown the teaching material and the “contextual themes” used in classroom as well as samples of the trilingual pedagogical material produced by the indigenous teachers (written in Portuguese).

KEYWORDS: AKWẽ-XERENTE (MACRO-JÊ); PORTUGUESE; ENGLISH; MULTILINGUALISM.

ISBN 9783862883271. LINCOM Studies in Language Acquisition 31. 306pp. 2012.

One Child, Two Languages: Acquisition of Japanese and English as Bilingual First Languages

Yuki Itani-Adams
University of Western Sydney

This is the first Japanese-English Bilingual First Language Acquisition (BFLA) longitudinal study carried out within the framework of Processability Theory (Pienemann, 1998a, 2005). The informant of this study is a girl growing up bilingually in an Australian family within a one-parent-one-language environment from birth, where the mother is a Japanese native speaker and the father an English native speaker in an English-dominant community. The corpus consists of naturally spoken production of English and Japanese by the child, collected over 3 years and 9 months from age 1;11 (one year and eleven month) to 4;10.

The present study investigates her lexical development, the acquisition of morphology and syntax in the two languages, and further examines the relationships between lexical and grammatical development within each of the two languages. The study addresses one of the main issues in the field of BFLA; ‘does a bilingual child develop the two languages separately from the beginning?’ Results indicate that both Japanese and English of the child developed in the sequence predicted by PT, and that for one bilingual child, Japanese and English each developed in parallel but in a separate manner.

ISBN 9783862884988. LINCOM Studies in Language Acquisition 32. 322pp.2013

The acquisition of Italian morphosyntax in L2 settings

Maurizio Santoro
The City University of New York

This book provides a thorough analysis of how Italian morphosyntax develops in L2 grammars. Data drawn from several studies are interpreted within Chomsky’s minimalist framework, and in light of the most recent theories in Second language Acquisition. This approach is of great value in that it correlates the Italian acquisition phenomena with more widespread developmental issues. As such, it provides the reader with a more comprehensive picture of the second language acquisition process, in general.

The volume covers four important morphosyntactic domains of Italian language, namely, (i) the subject and (ii) object pronominalization paying particular attention to the Pro-Drop Parameter resetting and the cliticization of the object pronouns, (iii) the nominal and the verbal systems with special emphasis on Italian nominal modification and the aspect/tense distinction of Italian verbs. Students that are particularly interested L2 acquisition issues may find this book particularly helpful because of its theoretical breath, and its user-friendly language. It may be also used as a supplementary reading material for an introductory course in Second Language Acquisition.

ISBN 9783862885855. LINCOM Studies in Language Acquisition 33. 192pp. 2014.

Overgeneralized Lexical Causatives in Adult English and Spanish L2 Acquisition

Mónica Estela Cabrera Camasca
Loyola Marymount University

The present study provides evidence in favor of the view that different L1 grammatical properties are transferred at different stages of acquisition. The study focuses on the acquisition of lexical causatives by L1-English/L2-Spanish and L1-Spanish/L2-English adult learners. English and Spanish lexical causatives have common constructional properties. The causative construction can be instantiated by verbs encoding change of state or location such as alternating unaccusatives, but not by unergatives.

In both languages, there is a subset of non-alternating unaccusatives that, although encode change, cannot appear in lexical causatives. They have been analyzed as lexically marked for the non-realization of their causative form. English and Spanish are different in that in the former, but not in the latter, manner-of-motion verbs can modify the causative construction in the context of a goal prepositional phrase. Learners tended to overgeneralize causatives especially at the beginner level, but mostly with predicates encoding change. At the advanced level, overgeneralization was restricted to verb classes allowed in lexical causatives in the L1. Learners make selective use of their L1 knowledge: constructional properties are transferred early on, and lexical specific properties are transferred at the post-intermediate level. Detailed individual analyses per subject and per verb are presented and discussed.

ISBN 9783862886210. LINCOM Studies in Language Acquisition 34. 98pp. 2015.